The printing of mercantile newspapers also promoted literacy. The widespread use of printed documents increased the importance of reading and writing skills and allowed shoppers to compare the value of goods different tradesmen offered. Bills of exchange, which served as an early form of credit based on promissory notes, took the place of oral agreements in the purchase of products or services. Uniform printed documents, including sales receipts and licenses, also advanced the growth of commerce in Europe. National and international trade interests grew as more people looked to buy products and goods. The emergence of capitalism created a largely urban middle class committed to expanding markets. Although many former feudal lords continued to receive a percentage of the harvest, an emerging cash economy undermined feudalism in the countryside and helped support a growing population throughout Europe.Įconomic changes further stimulated the growth of commerce. Medieval farmers also increased their crop yields-and their profits-by adapting the horse collar, an improved iron plow, and the three-field system of agriculture. For example, many people who remained in the country negotiated long-term leases for their own plots of land on which they could grow crops to sell or to feed their families. This demographic shift diluted the power of the feudal lords and forced them to make several compromises. Many people moved from the country to the city where they found more opportunities to make a living. Medieval cities, dominated by the guilds that brought economic stability, became the centers of commerce. The manorial system, in which lords owned the land worked by their vassals, or serfs, started to wane in the late Middle Ages with the development of nation-states.

The medieval world was based on feudalism, a highly regulated and hierarchical form of society in which everyone had their place and responsibilities.

Europe experienced radical economic and social changes between the 11th and 14th centuries.

The end of feudalism in the middle ages